For much of Jewish history, women were excluded from the formal processes of developing halakhah (Jewish law). While women’s lives were deeply shaped by halakhic rulings, they generally had little or no role in crafting or interpreting those laws. The traditional centers of rabbinic authority—yeshivot, batei din (religious courts), and responsa literature— were almost entirely male domains. Women were not taught Talmud, the primary language of halakhic discourse, and were rarely acknowledged as authoritative voices in legal texts. This absence was less about capability than about social norms that positioned women’s religious contributions in the private and domestic spheres.
Yet while women may have been excluded from formal halakhic authorship, they were far from absent in shaping Jewish religious life. Women were instrumental in preserving and building traditional Jewish practice—from lighting Shabbat candles to maintaining kashrut in the home, transmitting prayers and customs, and sustaining Jewish identity across generations. In this sense, they were builders of minhag (custom) and religious continuity, even if not officially part of halakhic development.
The twentieth century brought sweeping change. Fueled by broader feminist movements and growing access to Jewish education, women began entering the world of Torah and Talmud study. Institutions such as Drisha, Nishmat, Yeshivat Maharat, and Yeshiva University’s GPATS (Graduate Program in Advanced Talmud/Tanach Studies) program marked a groundbreaking shift in Modern Orthodoxy, formally training and in some cases ordaining women as spiritual and halakhic leaders. The title—Rabbi, Rabba, Rabbanit, Maharat, or Yoetzet Halakha—varies, and some choose not to take a title at all. But the transformation is undeniable: women are now entering spaces of Torah authority once considered unimaginable.
A pivotal force in this transformation has been the Jewish Orthodox Feminist Alliance (Jofa), founded in 1997. Jofa emerged as the grassroots response to the growing number of Orthodox women who wanted full participation in Jewish ritual, education, and leadership while remaining firmly rooted in halakhah. Through conferences, publications, advocacy, and education, Jofa has championed the inclusion of women in synagogue leadership, religious courts, ritual life, and communal decision-making. It has helped normalize women’s voices in spaces once closed to them and created a global network for Orthodox feminists committed to both tradition and change.
In recent years, one of the clearest expressions of this growing authority has been the way Orthodox women—especially Jofa’s leadership—have publicly addressed issues of reproductive rights. While Jewish tradition has long recognized the complexity of abortion through a halakhic lens, it was often male rabbis who spoke for the tradition. Today, women scholars and clergy are offering deeply personal, legally grounded, and morally powerful halakhic responses. In a moment when reproductive freedoms are under threat, women spiritual leaders are not just interpreting the tradition— they are embodying its ethical imperatives with courage and compassion.
This transformation is not only communal—it’s also personal. At my bat mitzvah, I took on the mitzvot without fully understanding the halakhic process. I knew I was committing to something important, but I could not have imagined where that commitment would lead.
I’ve spent my career exploring how halakhah intersects with modern life and advocating for women’s full inclusion in its development. This is not just an academic or spiritual journey—it’s a life’s mission, rooted in that early, tentative yes to mitzvah and responsibility.
Today, Jewish women serve as rabbis, teachers, poskot (legal decisors), and communal leaders. They shape the questions being asked and the answers being given. The journey from marginalization to leadership is ongoing—but each step forward enriches Jewish life for all. The once-muted voices of Jewish women are now a vibrant part of the halakhic conversation— transforming not only what Judaism looks like, but who gets to lead it. When women carry Torah, we don’t just inherit tradition—we shape it.
